Impressed With Paper

Impressed With Paper The last two rules ship steerage on the processâ€"heuristics for efficiently setting up manuscripts. Good scientific writing is essential to profession development and to the progress of science. The title not solely transmits the paper’s central contribution but also can function a constant reminder to focus the textual content on transmitting that concept. Science is, in any case, the abstraction of simple ideas from complex data. The title is the last word refinement of the paper’s contribution. Thinking concerning the title earlyâ€"and frequently returning to hone itâ€"may help not solely the writing of the paper but also the process of designing experiments or creating theories. Thus, the reader’s experience is of main importance, and all writing serves this aim. The structure of each introduction paragraph serves the goal of creating the gap. The introduction should not contain a broad literature evaluation beyond the motivation of the paper. This gap-centered construction makes it easy for experienced readers to evaluate the potential significance of a paperâ€"they only must assess the significance of the claimed hole. We like to put in writing one informal sentence for every planned paragraph. It is often helpful to begin the process round descriptions of every resultâ€"these might turn into the part headers in the outcomes part. Because the story has an overall arc, every paragraph should have an outlined position in advancing this story. This position is best scrutinized at the outline stage to be able to cut back wasting time on wordsmithing paragraphs that don’t end up fitting within the total story. You also needs to allocate your time in accordance with the importance of every part. The title, summary, and figures are viewed by much more people than the rest of the paper, and the strategies section is learn least of all. Figures, their titles, and legends are particularly essential as a result of they present probably the most objective support of the steps that culminate in the paper’s claim. Moreover, figures are sometimes seen by readers who skip immediately from the abstract to be able to save time. Thus, the title of the determine ought to talk the conclusion of the evaluation, and the legend ought to clarify how it was done. Figure making is an artwork unto itself; the Edward Tufte books remain the gold normal for learning this craft . Such a clear progression of logical steps makes the paper simple to comply with. As an example of the progression of gaps, a primary paragraph might explain why understanding cell differentiation is a vital matter and that the field has not yet solved what triggers it . A second paragraph may explain what is unknown concerning the differentiation of a particular cell sort, similar to astrocytes . A third might provide clues that a particular gene might drive astrocytic differentiation and then state that this speculation is untested . The gap assertion units the reader’s expectation for what the paper will ship. Only the central thought of the paper ought to be touched upon a number of instances. Ideas which might be similar, corresponding to two explanation why we should always consider something, ought to come one instantly after the opposite. The C-C-C scheme defines the structure of the paper on multiple scales. At the entire-paper scale, the introduction sets the context, the results are the content, and the dialogue brings house the conclusion. When you write, you need to continually have your reader in mind. These 4 guidelines assist you to to keep away from losing your reader. Here we present ten simple guidelines for structuring papers. The first 4 rules are principles that apply to all the parts of a paper and additional to different forms of communication similar to grants and posters. The next four guidelines deal with the primary targets of each of the principle parts of papers. Because you are the world’s leading professional at precisely what you are doing, you might be additionally the world’s least qualified individual to gauge your writing from the perspective of the naïve reader. The majority of writing errors stem from this predicament. Think like a designerâ€"for each factor, determine the impression that you simply want to have on individuals after which try to achieve that objective . Try to assume via the paper like a naïve reader who should first be made to care about the problem you're addressing and then will want to understand your reply with minimal effort. Very particular suggestions normally factors out places where the logic within a paragraph was not enough. It is vital to simply accept this suggestions in a constructive method. Because enter from others is crucial, a network of useful colleagues is key to making a narrative memorable. To keep this community working, make certain to pay back your colleagues by reading their manuscripts. The time that we do spend on every part can be utilized efficiently by planning textual content before producing it. Otherwise, each topic should be coated in only one place so as to reduce the variety of subject changes. Related sentences or paragraphs ought to be strung collectively quite than interrupted by unrelated materials.

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Easy Words To Use As Sentence Starters To Write Better Essays

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Write My Research Paper Quality Papers From Professional Writers The proven fact that only 5% of a journal’s readers may ever look at a paper, for instance, can’t be used as criteria for rejection, if in fact it's a seminal paper that can influence that subject. And we by no means know what findings will quantity to in a few years; many breakthrough studies weren't acknowledged as such for a few years. So I can solely price what precedence I believe the paper ought to receive for publication at present. The decision comes alongside during reading and making notes. If there are critical errors or lacking elements, then I do not suggest publication. Here are some easy-to-comply with tricks to give you a great title in your research paper. At the start of my career, I wasted numerous power feeling responsible about being behind in my reviewing. New requests and reminders from editors kept piling up at a quicker price than I may complete the critiques and the issue seemed intractable. And now I am in the joyful scenario of solely experiencing late-evaluation guilt on Friday afternoons, when I still have some time forward of me to finish the week's review. I nearly always do it in a single sitting, something from 1 to 5 hours depending on the length of the paper. This varies widely, from a couple of minutes if there is clearly a serious downside with the paper to half a day if the paper is really attention-grabbing however there are features that I don't understand. If the analysis introduced in the paper has serious flaws, I am inclined to suggest rejection, unless the shortcoming could be remedied with an inexpensive amount of revising. But also, we prevent all of the hustle of getting suggestions and working on them, failing or not doing relatively nicely then retaking a whole research paper. Ours is to have your research paper custom made to swimsuit what you need, and you will not even really feel a pinch that someone else helped you handle a analysis paper. If there are things I battle with, I will suggest that the authors revise parts of their paper to make it extra strong or broadly accessible. I want to give them trustworthy feedback of the identical sort that I hope to obtain once I submit a paper. My evaluations are inclined to take the form of a summary of the arguments within the paper, followed by a summary of my reactions after which a series of the particular factors that I needed to boost. Mostly, I am making an attempt to establish the authors’ claims within the paper that I didn't discover convincing and guide them to ways in which these factors may be strengthened . Work on your own writing style that emphasizes your viewpoints on the problem and traits of the researched object. Your particular person voice should help unwrap concepts in chronological order and in smooth move. The strategy of idea growth requires a solid evidence at your disposal. From the opposite hand, your concept must outline the proper path for a reader. Keep in thoughts that wealthy vocabulary and correct grammar use will help your arguments tremendously. You should develop more intelligent and beautiful strategy to beat your educated viewers. I usually write down all the issues that I noticed, good and dangerous, so my choice does not influence the content and length of my evaluate. I only make a advice to simply accept, revise, or reject if the journal specifically requests one. The determination is made by the editor, and my job as a reviewer is to provide a nuanced and detailed report on the paper to help the editor. I try to act as a neutral, curious reader who needs to grasp each detail. Your writing is really good and it’s obvious that you've got real pros. Wish you have been a bit cheaper but then I can’t have every little thing. Cookies are used here so we will continue to offer the superb service. If you had read and agreed to our Cookie Policy press OK. The IMRAD is a passkey to the construction and performance of an excellent analysis paper. Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion --- these are the key elements of a great paper. Bring up contradictory opinions on your viewers to lastly lead it to a single assertion that's at all times true and corroborated with a stack of arguments. If you want an unique analysis paper select essentially the most trustworthy sources on-line and offline. Learn new terms to be able to recognize an excellent piece of paper your author awards you with. To be concise in research is a good signal of an skilled pondering, as overloaded with details your reader will lose a common line. Any redundant details is not going to assist capture attention of your audience. Make sure that your title is catchy and informative, all at once. Allow your title to pique your readers’ curiosity and even make a press release.

Research Paper Writing

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Write My Research Paper, Get It Done In The Shortest Deadlines

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How To Write A Law Research Paper

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Oxbridge Essays

Oxbridge Essays Find the best balance between offering your own input and strengthening your level by citing exterior sources. As the word strongly suggests, growing a robust tutorial paper involves super effort on your half. You are also imagined to be consistent in using the writing fashion you choose. As a analysis paper is meant to be formal and informative, you are supposed to be consistent with your writing approach from begin to end. An efficient research paper can also be based mostly on valid and proven information, not just in your opinion. I actually have been working along with your service for someday now and I love it. Working two jobs and school was getting one of the best of me. Every task ordered with us is accomplished by a competent author working in your academic area. That means you get dependable and all-round assist from professionals who have considerable sensible information of your topic. The second free characteristic you'll get pleasure from is free formatting and citations. You can ensure that you'll always get a singular essay, written from scratch and customised based in your requirements. Citing sources is very important when it comes to your essay. All the papers you get at Apexessays.com are meant for analysis and sample functions only. The papers are not supposed to be submitted for educational credit and not use for any last submissions. The main and crucial task while drafting a research paper is to select a topic on which you'll write your heart out and on which you've enough information. It is apparent that graduate stage college students do not have sufficient sensible publicity to write on the subject with their own information. Our professional web site is the house to not just good writers, however the most effective writers. You only want to take a look at our testimonials to see that our clients agree. This extra characteristic sends you straight to the front of the queue. Thus, your messages and orders will be treated as the highest-most priority for our writers and buyer help consultants. This is the one means so that you can examine on progress and for your author to get clarification if needed. Concerning research and term paper service, will you have the proper to designate the particular sources for use for analysis? Our writers format your evaluation in accordance with your tutor’s requirements and supply sufficient sources to back up data said in your task. After all, writing is an endeavor of literary criticism. Luckily, everything the shopper help girl had advised me was true. I immediately began speaking with the writer, who assured me that though he wished to write my paper for me, he wished it additionally to be up to my requirements. I made sure he knew precisely what I wished, even going as far as to evaluation drafts and paper sections. A important quantity of supposed custom research papers found online tends to be comprised of previously written and sold works. These may have a couple of adjustments, but they'd still flag up as plagiarized. Research paper websites engaging on this practice couldn't possibly use resources that a consumer specifies. As it is an educational paper that requires details gleaned from studies, you're going to need different sources on which to base or assist your concepts. However, that is not to say that almost all of your paper is gathered from other sources. The basic rule is that your analysis paper shouldn't be comprised of more than one-third of knowledge gathered from external sources. Students can consider each same-day and longer-time period deadlines. Their position is to supply the best writing from an acceptable author within the given interval. This can be the rationale Copycrafter offers eight completely different deadline options. When he promised to both write my paper and supply pleasant assistance, he wasn’t kidding! You should have access to your online paper writer throughout the method of manufacturing.

Oxbridge Essays

Oxbridge Essays Find the best balance between offering your own input and strengthening your level by citing exterior sources. As the word strongly suggests, growing a robust tutorial paper involves super effort on your half. You are also imagined to be consistent in using the writing fashion you choose. As a analysis paper is meant to be formal and informative, you are supposed to be consistent with your writing approach from begin to end. An efficient research paper can also be based mostly on valid and proven information, not just in your opinion. I actually have been working along with your service for someday now and I love it. Working two jobs and school was getting one of the best of me. Every task ordered with us is accomplished by a competent author working in your academic area. That means you get dependable and all-round assist from professionals who have considerable sensible information of your topic. The second free characteristic you'll get pleasure from is free formatting and citations. You can ensure that you'll always get a singular essay, written from scratch and customised based in your requirements. Citing sources is very important when it comes to your essay. All the papers you get at Apexessays.com are meant for analysis and sample functions only. The papers are not supposed to be submitted for educational credit and not use for any last submissions. The main and crucial task while drafting a research paper is to select a topic on which you'll write your heart out and on which you've enough information. It is apparent that graduate stage college students do not have sufficient sensible publicity to write on the subject with their own information. Our professional web site is the house to not just good writers, however the most effective writers. You only want to take a look at our testimonials to see that our clients agree. This extra characteristic sends you straight to the front of the queue. Thus, your messages and orders will be treated as the highest-most priority for our writers and buyer help consultants. This is the one means so that you can examine on progress and for your author to get clarification if needed. Concerning research and term paper service, will you have the proper to designate the particular sources for use for analysis? Our writers format your evaluation in accordance with your tutor’s requirements and supply sufficient sources to back up data said in your task. After all, writing is an endeavor of literary criticism. Luckily, everything the shopper help girl had advised me was true. I immediately began speaking with the writer, who assured me that though he wished to write my paper for me, he wished it additionally to be up to my requirements. I made sure he knew precisely what I wished, even going as far as to evaluation drafts and paper sections. A important quantity of supposed custom research papers found online tends to be comprised of previously written and sold works. These may have a couple of adjustments, but they'd still flag up as plagiarized. Research paper websites engaging on this practice couldn't possibly use resources that a consumer specifies. As it is an educational paper that requires details gleaned from studies, you're going to need different sources on which to base or assist your concepts. However, that is not to say that almost all of your paper is gathered from other sources. The basic rule is that your analysis paper shouldn't be comprised of more than one-third of knowledge gathered from external sources. Students can consider each same-day and longer-time period deadlines. Their position is to supply the best writing from an acceptable author within the given interval. This can be the rationale Copycrafter offers eight completely different deadline options. When he promised to both write my paper and supply pleasant assistance, he wasn’t kidding! You should have access to your online paper writer throughout the method of manufacturing.

Laboratory , Engineering Design Practice Example

Laboratory , Engineering Design Practice Example Laboratory , Engineering Design Practice â€" Assignment Example > AbstractCalorimetry is the measure of the heat evolved during a chemical process or heat required to sustain a chemical process. Calorimeter is a device used to measure the heat in a quantitative manner within control conditions. The same principle is applied in cone calorimeter. Cone calorimeter is an important laboratory device used to measure the characteristics of fire of small samples of various materials. Cone calorimeter measures the various aspects of combustion of substances utilising the principle of oxygen combustion calorimetry. Cone calorimeter has been specifically made to use the oxygen consumption calorimetry principle. (Mouritz, A. Gibson, 2007). The most important element in any combustion is the availability of oxygen. The overall heat produced during the combustion of an organic material has a direct correlation to the quantitative aspect of oxygen. There are various basic aspects of heat that provide much information when doing experiments concerning heat. Hea t capacity can be quantified in terms of molar heat capacity which is the heat capacity of a particular compound divided by the number of moles of that compound. Another quantitative aspect of heat capacity is specific heat which is the heat of an element divided by its mass. It is also important to note that heat capacity of any substance always has a positive value. Other aspects of fire and combustion in general that need consideration when working with a cone calorimeter include: the cumulative quantity of heat released, the rate of heat released per unit area, the time of ignition, the effective heat of the combustion, the total loss of mass, the rate of the loss of the mass and the smoke obstruction. These are important aspects during an experiment because they may lead to variable results for the same material if at all they are not considered during the experiment. (Taylor and Francis, 2006). IntroductionThe cone calorimeter works by measuring the heat produced by a sample burned in a closed oxygen atmosphere, enclosed by water and in control experimental conditions. The basic principle behind the functioning of cone calorimeter still remains the same. The instrument is made from the understanding of the engineering aspects of fire. Aim of the ExperimentThe aim of the experiment is familiarization of the operations of the cone calorimeter by using it to quantitatively analyse various samples. The samples include blue carpets, green carpets and experiments on various underlay. Objective of the experimentThe objective of the experiment is to analyse the various properties of fire which include: the cumulative quantity of heat released, the rate of heat released per unit area, the time of ignition, the effective heat of the combustion, the total loss of mass, the rate of the loss of the mass and the smoke obstruction. The blue carpets, the green carpets and the underlay will both be analysed by doing each of the experiments three times in order to find a more reliable average of the results. BackgroundThe cone calorimeter has been used for many years for the analysis of combustion properties of various substances; therefore the results from the experiment should be able to provide a credible source of information about the different substances. (Haines, B. 2006).

Actuellement Is a French False Cognate

Mistakes will always be made in French, and now you can learn from them. French and English have hundreds of cognates, which are words that look alike or are pronounced the same in both languages. There are true cognates (similar meanings), false cognates (different meanings) and semi-false cognates (some similar, some different meanings). The French adverb actuellement looks an awful lot like the English word actually, but looks can be deceiving.  Its really the  case of a  false cognate, because these two words mean completely different things: Actuellement means at the present time and should be translated as right now or currently.  Actually means in fact and should be translated as  en fait,  Ãƒ   vrai dire  or vraiment. Still, many people have not assimilated this lesson, and  actuellement  is mistakenly used to mean actually so often that  you  have to read the sentence two or three times to decide what the person actually means. How to Remember Which Is Which If you need a memory device, keep this in mind: Actualità ©Ã‚  refers to a  current event.  If you can remember this, you shouldnt have trouble remembering that actuellement and actually are false cognates with different meanings. Or you can remember the etymology. The root word of actually is actual, which means real or true. (Depending on the context, actual can be translated as  rà ©el,  vrai,  và ©ritable,  positif, or  concret.)  By extension then, actually means in fact. Meanwhile, the French root word for actuellement is the French adjective actuel, which means current or present. So actuellement  naturally refers to time as well and, by extension, means currently or right now. Examples of Correct Usage Je travaille actuellement. (I am currently working.)Le problà ¨me actuel (The current/present problem)Actually, I dont know him. (En fait, je ne le connais pas.)The actual value (La valeur rà ©elle)

Coca Coors Corporate Social Responsibility - 3380 Words

Flavoring the Beer Print: The Furtherance of Miller Coors Corporate Social Responsibility Phil Koerber Dr. Branson OL-690 Executive Summary As the new Global Responsibility Director for Molson Coors, my objective is uncomplicated—to build upon what founder John Molson believed. Molson believed that everyone is a members of a larger community dependent on the idea where everyone played a part (Molson Coors, n.d.). This sentiment speaks directly toward corporate social responsibility (CSR). Defining CSR is a hard task. CSR could be non-governmental organization engagement, or a focus on charitable donations, and even relate to the ethical treatment of employees (Wan-Jan, 2006). I offer that CSR is about action—what it†¦show more content†¦When corporate responsibility strategies were first defined, the company s performance was benchmarked against global standards (Molson Coors, n.d.). The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) was one such standard, as it â€Å"promotes the use of sustainability reporting as a way for organizations to become more sustainable and contribute to sustainable developme nt† (Global Reporting Initiative, n.d., para. 1). In 2009, the company was rated by the Pacific Sustainability Index (PSI) among the top 10 among beverage companies for its sustainability activities (Molson Coors (a), 2009). Furthermore, RiskMetrics, a leading provider of risk management and corporate governance products, provided an AA ranking to Molson Coors (Molson Coors (a), n.d.). The current vision and value statements for Molson Coors rely on a unproblematic idea—the proposition of commonality. A vision statement is the declaration of a company s goals which identifies what the company wishes to achieve or accomplish, and it should be a singular, unified, and clearly explained to all employees so that the proper business strategies are developed to reach the goals (Hom, 2013). The company s vision is deeply rooted in the idea of â€Å"Our Brew,† the cultural compass which provides direction, definition and value (Molson Coors, n.d.). This value is seen from the top down. Our CEO Peter Swinburn said, â€Å"It is our business to understand how the company affects the environment, and our employees,

Communication Institutionnelle Free Essays

Strategic management  : Etude de cas 1- SWOT SWOT Apple  : Strenghts  : – Good reputation among consumers always with innovative products (ipod: the first portable music player) – A high turnover and the company is quoted on stock – They have their own operating system (Linux) – Customer loyalty to the brand it create a community among users of Apple – An operating system more intuitive than Microsoft. Weaknesses: – Steeve Job’s death destabilized the brand – Product prices are higher than other competitors’ products – Lack of flexibility (you can’t install freeware) Opportunities: – Young children are using more and more products such as Iphone, Iphone to play. – Gap between prices of iphone and android who is closing. We will write a custom essay sample on Communication Institutionnelle or any similar topic only for you Order Now Threats: – The androids are developing their own applications (andoid market) – Arrival of computers with batteries that have autonomy from 9am (DELL) – Tablet PC are becoming more accessible (price) with competition SWOT Samsung  : Strenghts: – Highly technical and developed products – Create their operating system for mobile phone (Bada system) – Quick adaptation to competitors’ innovations Several sector are covered (tv, laptop, computer †¦ ) if loss of money, it’s offset by other sectors – Reputation of the brand = high-tech Weaknesses: – Several sectors covered brand catchall – Creating products from the competition forger – The operating system Bada is new it is not led bugs, lack of applications†¦ Opportunities: – Growing on Indian market – Positive brand in terms of consumers = quality Threats: – Increase in prices of raw material – Strong competition o n the various markets covered by samsung. 2- Which generic strategy  : About the generic strategy, Apple applies the broad differentiation strategy. Indeed, Apple differentiates with his high quality products, the service that they propose (Apple community) has if they products are realized for the best. The generic strategy of Samsung is more popular. Even if it’s a really technical brand, they play on the cost of the product. They don’t change the quality of the product but they only try to reduce the cost of production. So, it’s a cost leadership strategy that’s using at Samsung Corp. 3- Analyse strategy Apple has an international reputation in the field of high-tech with innovation, and esthetics of its products. With this reputation the company can afford to implement higher price than competitors. Those prices select customers and therefore reduce the target brand. Apple makes its products in front with original advertising campaigns, and sells a preview creating an enthusiasm that the consumer side and therefore a large increase in sales (600 000 iphone4 sold the first day of sale). Samsung operates on the appearance of cheaper products while keeping product uality. This strategy is possible inspired by the technologies of competitors and produced at lower cost. Also the fact that Samsung produce several kind of high-tech products, avoids large losses of money if failure. 4- Suggestions/recommandations based on analysis of strategy Samsung should develop its own designs and technologies so that flakes of the forger image with consumers. Apple, however, with more elitist strategy should democratize its prices on some products to make its product more accessible to smaller budgets. How to cite Communication Institutionnelle, Papers

Introduction To The Visual Arts Essays - Byzantine Art, Handicrafts

Introduction to the Visual Arts Throughout history art has played an intricate role in society's perception of life. Art is used as form of expressionism be it physical or emotional, religious or the mockery of religion. The birth of new artistic eras were due to the technological advancements of the world. Below are a few examples of works of art that from different era in our humanity. Francisco de Stefano's, named Pesellino during the renaissance, A Miracle of Saint Silvester is a scene representative of an episode of Saint Silvester's life who was pope during the reign of Constantine the Great. Originally this work forms the lower portion of an altarpiece. The scene may be recognized as showing the miracle by which the Pope Saint Silvester convinced Helen, the mother of the emperor Constantine, that her son's conversion to Christianity was justifiable. Saint Silvester is shown bringing back to life a bull that had been killed by a Jewish Doctor, who had argued for his faith. Witnessing this godly act all present at this scene were converted to Christianity. Helen is seen enthroned under the right hand loggia, the Emperor under the left hand, while the Jewish pagans witness the miracle. Pesellino uses rich colors that entice the spectators' attention, which was common during the Renaissance. The use of orange, blue, and gold allows the artist to draw the spectators attention to what he feels is imperative within the work. Pesellino composes with an extremely finished style which is apparent with the detail used in the facial features as well as the gold trim that is which is shown on all present within the work. This style of painting opened the door for many artists who followed. Andrea Del Sarto's Saint John the Baptist only one of few paintings in America composed by Del Sarto. He composed this work of the patron saint of Florence at the height of his artistic career. The harmonious balance composition, delicate modeling, and glowing tonalities are hallmarks of his artistic style. The graceful design and blending of rich colors reflect the idealized style of the High Renaissance. He also uses Christian and classical traditions such as the portrayal of a coarse hair shirt, pointing hand, and reed cross are representative of Jesus Christ. The use of light on the right arm and pointing hand draws the spectator to focus attention to the cross symbolizing Christ. The use of analogous colors, red and green gives the spectator a genuine portrayal of human skin and stimulates our eyes. The use of golden halo and ivy reef alludes to Bacchus, who was considered a pagan antetype of both Christ and the Baptist during the Renaissance. The late Roman Hunting Scene is mosaic that was escavated from Antioch in three pieces of pavement. The sheer size of this work is breath taking, 20 ft. 6.25 inches X 23 ft. 9.75 inches. The mosaic depicts the hunting of dangerous game, an aristocratic pastime which is represented throughout Roman work. At first glance from a distance one may mistake the pavement to be a carpet. At the center position is a hunter surrounded by animals in a pattern that doesn't clutter the mosaic. The animals are portrayed more naturalistic than the humans and were used to fill the voids in the mosaic. The tiles are arranged in an arching motion, which gives the illusion of movement to the spectator. Hunters on foot and horseback attack a variety of animals that are highly placed with in the animal kingdom. There is a sense of grotesqueness due to the portrayal of blood with in the mosaic. The hunters seem to consider their conquests as sporty due to their facial expressions. The hunters dress in a He llenistic style. Mosaics were produced by workshops consisting of mastercraftsmen and apprentices. Mosaicists painted or scored the basic designs ad figures into the wet surface. Tesserae were then laid onto a thin bed of sort mortar. Once the entire floor was finished, the surface was polished with an abrasive stone and fine sand. An excellent piece of architecture is the Chapter House from west central France. It served the purpose of prayer, study, and reflection. The gothic style of the arches, which support the

The London Dungeon, Hadrians Wall Mix Tenses, Active X Passive Essays

The London Dungeon, Hadrians Wall Mix Tenses, Active X Passive Essays The London Dungeon, Hadrians Wall Mix Tenses, Active X Passive Paper The London Dungeon, Hadrians Wall Mix Tenses, Active X Passive Paper The London Dungeon Fill the gaps with the correct tenses. 1. The London Dungeon (lie) __________ in the oldest part of London in an old subterranean prison (thats what the word Dungeon (stand) __________ for). 2. The museum (take) __________ its visitors on a journey through Englands bloody history. 3. It (demonstrate) __________ the brutal killings and tortures of the past. 4. You (experience / can) __________ for example how people (die) __________ on the Gallow or during the Plague of 1665. 5. The Dungeon also (show) __________ scenes of Jack the Ripper or the beheading of Anne Boleyn, who (be) __________ one of Henry VIII’s six wives. . The atmosphere at the Dungeon (be) __________ really scary nothing for the faint-hearted. 7. While you (walk) __________ around the Dungeon, watch out for creepy creatures the Dungeon (employ) __________ actors to give its visitors the fright of their lives. 8. The actors, dressed as monsters, ghosts or executers, (hide) __________ in th e dark corners of the Dungeon and then suddenly (jump) __________ out and (grab) __________ one of the visitors. 9. And the horror (end / not) __________ at the exit of the exhibition. 10. (you / eat / ever) __________ a pizza with fingers and eyeballs on it? 1. Well, if you (fancy) __________ that kind of food, you (love) __________ the meals at the Dungeon restaurant. 12. The museum (want) __________ to provoke, shock, educate and delight. 13. And this it (do) __________ extremely well. 14. Since its opening in 1975, the Dungeon (attract) __________ many visitors from all over the world. 15. Besides the regular opening hours, the Dungeon sometimes also (open) __________ at night. 16. If you (have) __________ enough money and nerves of steel, you (book / can) __________ the Dungeon for parties, conferences or charity events at night. 17. And on 31 October, a frightfully good Halloween Party (take place) __________ at the Dungeon every year. Hadrians Wall Fill the gaps with the correct tenses (active or passive voice). 1. In the year 122 AD, the Roman Emperor Hadrian (visit) ___________ his provinces in Britain. 2. On his visit, the Roman soldiers (tell) ___________ him that Pictish tribes from Britains north (attack) ___________ them. 3. So Hadrian (give) ___________ the order to build a protective wall across one of the narrowest parts of the country. 4. After 6 years of hard work, the Wall (finish) ___________ in 128. . It (be) ___________ 117 kilometres long and about 4 metres high. 6. The Wall (guard) ___________ by 15,000 Roman soldiers. 7. Every 8 kilometres there (be) ___________ a large fort in which up to 1,000 soldiers (find) ___________ shelter. 8. The soldiers (watch) ___________ over the frontier to the north and (check) ___________ the people who (want) ___________ to enter or leave Roman Britain. 9. In order to pass through the Wall, people (must go) ___________ to one of the small forts that (serve) ___________ as gateways. 10. Those forts (call) ___________ milecastles because the distance from one fort to another (be) ___________ one Roman mile (about 1,500 metres). 11. Between the milecastles there (be) ___________ two turrets from which the soldiers (guard) ___________ the Wall. 12. If the Wall (attack) ___________ by enemies, the soldiers at the turrets (run) ___________ to the nearest milecastle for help or (light) ___________ a fire that (can / see) ___________ by the soldiers in the milecastle. 13. In 383 Hadrians Wall (abandon) ___________ . 14. Today Hadrians Wall (be) ___________ the most popular tourist attraction in northern England. 15. In 1987, it (become) ___________ a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 1. The London Dungeon lies in the oldest part of London in an old subterranean prison (thats what the word Dungeon stands for). 2. The museum takes its visitors on a journey through Englands bloody history. 3. It demonstrates the brutal killings and tortures of the past. 4. You can experience for example how people died on the Gallow or during the Plague of 1665. 5. The Dungeon also shows scenes of Jack the Ripper or the beheading of Anne Boleyn, who was one of Henry VIII’s six wives. 6. The atmosphere at the Dungeon is really scary nothing for the faint-hearted. . While you are walking around the Dungeon, watch out for creepy creatures the Dungeon employs actors to give its visitors the fright of their lives. 8. The actors, dressed as monsters, ghosts or executers, hide in the dark corners of the Dungeon and then suddenly jump out and grab one of the visitors. 9. And the horror doesnt end at the exit of the exh ibition. 10. Have you ever eaten a pizza with fingers and eyeballs on it? 11. Well, if you fancy that kind of food, you will love the meals at the Dungeon restaurant. 12. The museum wants to provoke, shock, educate and delight. 13. And this it does extremely well. 4. Since its opening in 1975, the Dungeon has attracted many visitors from all over the world. 15. Besides the regular opening hours, the Dungeon sometimes also opens at night. 16. If you have enough money and nerves of steel, you can book the Dungeon for parties, conferences or charity events at night. 17. And on 31 October, a frightfully good Halloween Party takes place at the Dungeon every year. 1. In the year 122 AD, the Roman Emperor Hadrian visited his provinces in Britain. 2. On his visit, the Roman soldiers told him that Pictish tribes from Britains north had attacked them. . So Hadrian gave the order to build a protective wall across one of the narrowest parts of the country. 4. After 6 years of hard work, the Wal l was finished in 128. 5. It was 117 kilometres long and about 4 metres high. 6. The Wall was guarded by 15,000 Roman soldiers. 7. Every 8 kilometres there was a large fort in which up to 1,000 soldiers found shelter. 8. The soldiers watched over the frontier to the north and checked the people who wanted to enter or leave Roman Britain. 9. In order to pass through the Wall, people had to go to one of the small forts that served as gateways. 0. Those forts were called milecastles because the distance from one fort to another was one Roman mile (about 1,500 metres). 11. Between the milecastles there were two turrets from which the soldiers guarded the Wall. 12. If the Wall was attacked by enemies, the soldiers at the turrets ran to the nearest milecastle for help or lit a fire that could be seen by the soldiers in the milecastle. 13. In 383 Hadrians Wall was abandoned . 14. Today Hadrians Wall is the most popular tourist attraction in northern England. 15. In 1987, it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Marie Curie - Mother of Modern Physics

Marie Curie - Mother of Modern Physics Marie Curie was the first truly famous woman scientist in the modern world.  She was known as the  Mother of Modern Physics for her pioneer work in research about radioactivity, a word she coined. She was the first woman awarded a Ph.D. in research science in Europe  and the first woman professor at the Sorbonne. Curie discovered and isolated polonium and radium, and established the nature of radiation and beta rays. She won Nobel Prizes in  1903 (Physics) and 1911 (Chemistry) and was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize, and the first person to win Nobel Prizes in two different scientific disciplines. Fast Facts: Marie Curie Known For: Research in radioactivity and discovery of polonium and radium. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize (Physics in 1903), and the first person to win a second Nobel Prize (Chemistry in 1911)Also Known As: Maria SklodowskaBorn: November 7, 1867 in Warsaw, PolandDied: July 4, 1934 in Passy, FranceSpouse: Pierre Curie (m. 1896-1906)Children: Irà ¨ne and ÈveInteresting Fact: Marie Curies daughter, Irà ¨ne, also won a Nobel Prize (Chemistry in 1935) Early Life and Education Marie Curie was born in Warsaw, the youngest of five children. Her father was a physics teacher, her mother, who died when Curie was 11, was also an educator. After graduating with high honors in her early schooling, Marie Curie found herself, as a woman, without options in Poland for higher education. She spent some time as a governess, and in 1891 followed her sister, already a gynecologist, to Paris. In Paris, Marie Curie enrolled at the Sorbonne. She graduated in first place in physics (1893), then, on a scholarship, returned for a degree in mathematics in which she took second place (1894). Her plan was to return to teach in Poland. Research and Marriage She began to work as a researcher in Paris. Through  her work, she met a French scientist, Pierre Curie, in 1894 when he was 35. They were married on July 26, 1895, in a civil marriage. Their first child, Irà ¨ne, was born in 1897. Marie Curie continued to work on her research and began work as a physics lecturer at a girls school. Radioactivity Inspired by work on radioactivity in uranium by Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie began research on Becquerel rays to see if other elements also had this quality. First, she discovered radioactivity in thorium, then demonstrated that the radioactivity is not a property of an interaction between elements but is an atomic property, a property of the interior of the atom rather than how it is arranged in a molecule. On April 12, 1898, she published her hypothesis of a still-unknown radioactive element, and worked with pitchblende and chalcocite, both uranium ores, to isolate this element. Pierre joined her in this research. Marie Curie and Pierre Curie thus discovered first polonium (named for her native Poland) and then radium. They announced these elements in 1898. Polonium and radium were present in very small amounts in pitchblende, along with larger quantities of uranium. Isolating the very small amounts of the new elements took years of work. On January 12, 1902, Marie Curie isolated pure radium, and her 1903 dissertation resulted in the first advanced scientific research degree to be awarded to a woman in France- the first doctorate in science awarded to a woman in all of Europe. In 1903, for their work, Marie Curie, her husband Pierre, and Henry Becquerel, were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics. The Nobel Prize committee reportedly first considered giving the award to Pierre Curie and Henry Becquerel, and Pierre worked behind the scenes to ensure that Marie Curie won appropriate recognition by being included. It was also in 1903 that Marie and Pierre lost a child, born prematurely. Radiation poisoning from working with radioactive substances had begun to take a toll, though the Curies did not know it or were in denial of that. They were both too sickly to attend the 1903 Nobel ceremony in Stockholm. In 1904, Pierre was given a professorship at the Sorbonne for his work. The professorship established more financial security for the Curie family- Pierres father had moved in to help care for the children. Marie was given a small salary and a title as Chief of the Laboratory. That same year, the Curies established the use of radiation therapy for cancer and lupus, and their second daughter, Ève, was born. Ève would later write a biography of her mother. In 1905, the Curies finally traveled to Stockholm, and Pierre gave the Nobel Lecture. Marie was annoyed by the attention to their romance rather than to their scientific work. From Wife to Professor But security was short-lived, as Pierre was killed suddenly in 1906 when he was run over by a horse-drawn carriage on a Paris street. This left Marie Curie a widow with responsibility for raising her two young daughters. Marie Curie was offered a national pension, but turned it down. A month after Pierres death, she was offered his chair at the Sorbonne, and she accepted. Two years later she was elected a full professor- the first woman to hold a chair at the Sorbonne. Further Work Marie Curie spent the next years organizing her research, supervising the research of others, and raising funds. Her Treatise on Radioactivity was published in 1910. Early in 1911, Marie Curie was denied election to the French Academy of Sciences by one vote. Emile Hilaire Amagat said of the vote, Women cannot be part of the Institute of France. Marie Curie refused to have her name resubmitted for nomination and refused to allow the Academy to publish any of her work for ten years.  The press attacked her for her candidacy. Nevertheless, that same year she was appointed director of the Marie Curie Laboratory, part of the Radium Institute of the University of Paris, and of the Institute for Radioactivity in Warsaw, and she was awarded a second Nobel Prize. Tempering her successes that year was a scandal: a newspaper editor alleged an affair between Marie Curie and a married scientist. He denied the charges, and the controversy ended when the editor and scientist arranged a duel, but neither fired. Years later, Marie and Pierres granddaughter married the grandson of the scientist which whom she may have had the affair. During World War I, Marie Curie chose to support the French war effort actively. She put her prize winnings into war bonds and fitted ambulances with portable x-ray equipment for medical purposes, driving the vehicles to the front lines. She established two hundred permanent x-ray installations in France and Belgium. After the war, her daughter Irene joined Marie Curie as an assistant at the laboratory. The Curie Foundation was established in 1920 to work on medical applications for radium. Marie Curie took an important trip to the United States in 1921 to accept the generous gift of a gram of pure radium for research. In 1924, she published her biography of her husband. Illness and Death The work of Marie Curie, her husband, and colleagues with radioactivity was done in ignorance of its effect on human health. Marie Curie and her daughter Irene contracted leukemia, apparently induced by exposure to high levels of radioactivity. The notebooks of Marie Curie are still so radioactive that they cannot be handled. Marie Curies health was declining seriously by the end of the 1920s. Cataracts contributed to failing vision. Marie Curie retired to a sanatorium, with her daughter Eve as her companion. She died of pernicious anemia, also most likely an effect of the radioactivity in her work, in 1934.

Conceptual Models to Represent Relationships Essay

Conceptual Models to Represent Relationships - Essay Example Now that the project is concluded, we have edited it and made a digital copy. It is now necessary to make a decision on which is the best way to examine the information collected to best understand the interviewees and the issues that they reported about their experience at the restaurant. Â  Hypothesis: i/ Customers with two or more children are more likely to drive over three miles to the restaurant than customers with one child., are more likely to drive more than 3 miles to come to the Restaurant compared to those with only one child. Â  The best techniques to test the above hypothesis and relationships are ANOVA three to four means, CHI-SQUARE, and the T-TEST. These techniques were chosen after analyzing the types of data that we collected. Each technique analyzes data in a different way. Â  The ANOVA technique was selected because it is useful for finding statistical variation between three or more averages. For example, question twelve asks customers if they think Santa Fe Grill has friendly employees. The data is taken from single, married and divorced customers, so the statistical technique that can be used will be ANOVA. Â  The Chi-square was selected because it can be used to examine relationships involving nominally scaled data, unlike other statistical techniques. This technique was used for question number 32 where customers are supposed to classify their sexual orientation and other similar questions such as a question that asks the surveyed to indicate marital status. Â  

Latin America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Latin America - Essay Example One of the features is the central lowlands. The others are the eastern region’s extensive highlands of Guiana and Brazil and the third is the Andes. The Andes for instance comprise ranges of mountains that are Cenozoic that resulted from the active convergence of the Pacific tectonic plates and the American tectonic plates (Gritzner, 2006). The Latin America is widely reputed for its extensive tracks of fertile lands all across the continent and also with sites rich in rare minerals and stones. There are in addition to these, a plethora of water bodies all across the Latin America in the form of rivers, lakes, streams, and so coupled with beautiful sceneries. The nature of the geography of Latin America has been more beneficial to the people living in the region than it has been detrimental. For one, the geography is one that attracts habitable/ suitable climates where populations and crops can thrive. There is a lot of rainfall experienced in the region throughout the year and with the fertile soils of the lands, agriculture in the region continues to boom. The region therefore because of its geography is food sufficient with the surplus exported to other areas for foreign exchange. Furthermore, as already stated, the geography of the lands boasts rocks that contain a number of minerals such as copper, tin and mercury from the Altiplano, that are mined for monetary value (Webb, 1972). Because of this good geography too, the Latin America has provided a suitable habitat for wildlife species such as in the Amazon that continue to elicit great tourism revenues. Other natural beauties of this geography such as the Iguazu falls in Argentina and the Perito Moreno glacier also bring in millions of tourists to the region annually. Because of all these activities that have been facilitated by the generous geography of the area, the region continues to experience great economic growth and the improvement of standards of living of the

Globalization And Trade Liberalisation Economics Essay

Globalization And Trade Liberalisation Economics Essay The current period in the world economy is regarded as period of globalization and trade liberalisation. In this period, one of the crucial issues in Development and International Economics is to know whether trade openness indeed promotes growth. With globalization, two major trends are noticeable: first is the emergence of multinational firms with strong presence in different, strategically located markets; and secondly, convergence of consumer tastes for the most competitive products, irrespective of where they are made. In this context of the world as a global village, regional integration constitutes an effective means of not only improving the level of participation of countries in the sub-region in world trade, but also their integration into the borderless and interlinked global economy.(NEEDS, 2005) Since 1950, the world economy has experienced a massive liberalisation of world trade, initially under the auspices of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), established in 1947, and currently under the auspices of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) which replaced the GATT in 1993. Tariff levels in both developed and developing countries have reduced drastically, averaging approximately 4% and 20% respectively, even though the latter is relatively high. Also, non-tariff barriers to trade, such as quotas, licenses and technical specifications, are also being gradually dismantled, but at a slower rate when compared with tariffs. The liberalisation of trade has led to a massive expansion in the growth of world trade relative to world output. While world output (or GDP) has expanded fivefold, the volume of world trade has grown 16 times at an average compound rate of just over 7% per annum. In fact, It is difficult, if not impossible, to understand the growth and development process of countries without reference to their trading performance. (Thirlwall, 2000). Likewise, Fontagnà © and Mimouni (2000) asserted that since the end of the European recovery after World War II, tariff rates have been divided by 10 at the world level, international trade has been multiplied by 17, world income has quadrupled, and income per capita has doubled. Incidentally, it is well known that periods of openness have generally been associated with prosperity, whereas protectionism has been the companion of recessions. In addition, the trade performance of individual countries tends to be a good indicator of economic performance since well performing countries tend to record higher rates of GDP growth. In total, there is a common perception that even if imperfect competition and second best situations offer the possibility of welfare improving trade policies, on average free trade is better than no trade. From the ongoing discussion, it is evident that trade is very important in promoting and sustaining the growth and development of an economy. No country can isolate herself from trading with the rest of the world because trade acts as a catalyst of growth. Thus Nigeria, being part of the world, is no exemption. For this reason, there is a need to thoroughly examine the nature of relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. Trade Openness And Output Growth: Historical Experience Of The Nigerian economy Today, Nigeria is regarded to have the largest economy in sub-Saharan Africa, excluding South Africa. In the last three decades, there has been little or no progress made in alleviating poverty despite the massive effort made and the many programmes established for that purpose. Indeed, as in many other sub-Saharan Africa countries, both the number of poor and the proportion of poor have been increasing in Nigeria. In particular, the 1998 United Nations Human Development Report declares that 48% of Nigerias population lives below the poverty line. According to the Report (UNDP, 1998), the bitter reality of the Nigerian situation is not just that the poverty level is getting worse by the day but more than four in ten Nigerians live in conditions of extreme poverty of less than N320 per capita per month, which barely provides for a quarter of the nutritional requirements of healthy living. This is approximately US$8.2 per month or US27 cents per day. Doug Addison (undated) further explained that the Nigerian economy is not merely volatile; it is one of the most volatile economies in the world. There is evidence that this volatility is adversely affecting the real growth rate of Nigerias gross domestic product (GDP) by inhibiting investment and reducing the productivity of investment, both public and private (see figure 1 below). Economic theory and empirical evidence suggest that sustained high future growth and poverty reduction are unlikely without a significant reduction in volatility. Oil price fluctuations drive only part of Nigerias volatility; policy choices have also contributed to the problem. Yet policy choices are available that can help accelerate growth and thus help reduce the percentage of people living in poverty, despite the severity of Nigerias problems. Figure During the period 1960-1997, Nigerias growth rate of per capita GDP of 1.45% compares unfavourably with that reported by other countries, especially those posted by China and the Asian Tigers such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea. Viewed in this comparative perspective, Nigerias per capita income growth has been woefully low and needs to be improved upon. (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002). In like manner, Ogujiuba, Oji and Adenuga (2004) wrote that the Nigerian economy has severally been described as a difficult environment for business. With a population growth of about 3%, it has been acknowledged that the current average output growth rate of less than 4% will see the country being poorer in the next decade. A study conducted by Iyoha and Oriakhi (2002) on Nigerias per capita GNP from 1964 to 1997 shows that it rose steadily from US$120 to US$780 in 1981. Thereafter, it fell almost steadily to US$280 in 1997. Thus, between 1964 and 1981, income per capita increased by 550% or at an annual average rate of 32.3% while between 1981 and 1997, it fell by 64.1% or at an annual average rate of 4%. It is worth noting that if income per capita had continued to increase beyond 1981 as it did before then, Nigerias GNP per capita would have equaled US$1,279 in 1997. The difference between US$280 and US$1,279, i.e., approximately US$1,000.00, is a rough measure of the cost to the average Nigerian of domestic macroeconomic policy mistakes and adverse international economic shocks. Likewise, in 1960 agricultural exports accounted for 70.8% of total exports while petroleum accounted for only 2.6%. Exports of other commodities like tin and processed goods amounted to 26.6% of total exports. By 1970 agric ultural exports only accounted for 33% of total exports while petroleum exports had started to establish dominance by exceeding 58% of total exports. By the time the oil boom began in earnest in 1974, petroleum exports accounted for approximately 93% of all exports. The relative share of agricultural exports in total exports had shrunk to 5.4% while other products accounted for the remaining 1.9%. Since 1974, with the exception of 1978 when the relative share of petroleum in total exports amounted to 89.1%, petroleums share in exports has consistently exceeded 90%. Indeed, since 1990, the relative share of petroleum in total exports has exceeded 96%. Agricultures contribution has fluctuated between 0.5% and 2.3% while the share of other products has fluctuated between 0.5% and 1.7%. Thus, petroleum exportation has totally dominated the economy and indeed government finances since the mid-1970s. Meanwhile, a puzzling and disturbing aspect of Nigerias export boom is that the growth it generated did not seem to be lasting or to have had a significant effect in changing the structure of the economy. For instance, in the 1970s, there was a major increase in measured GDP but the structure of the economy remained basically unchanged (see figure 2 below). This led Professor Yesufu (1995) to describe the Nigerian economy as one that had experienced growth without development. Figure During the period of 1970-1985, import substitution industrialization (ISI) strategy was a dominant feature of trade policy in Nigeria. The trade policy was generally inward oriented. Under this ISI strategy, infant manufacturing industries were protected using high tariffs, import quotas, and other trade restrictions like import licensing. Non-tariff barriers to trade such as import prohibitions were also utilized. During this period, trade policy was also adjusted in response to the exigencies of the balance of payments. Also, Nigeria was operating a fixed exchange rate regime under which the value of the naira was essentially tied to the U.S. dollar and gold. It is worth noting that the trade policy pursued during this period resulted in a rapid increase in manufacturing production and employment, particularly during the era of the oil boom (1975-1980) and that led to a rise in the share of manufacturing in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from 5.6% in 1962/63 to 8.7% in 1986. (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002). In 1986, Nigeria adopted the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) of the IMF/World Bank in 1986. With the adoption of SAP in 1986, there was a radical shift from inward-oriented trade policies to outward-oriented trade policies in Nigeria. These are policies and measures that emphasize production and trade along the lines dictated by a countrys comparative advantage such as export promotion and export diversification, reduction or elimination of import tariffs, and the adoption of market-determined exchange rates. Some of the aims of the Structural Adjustment Programme adopted in 1986 were diversification of the structure of exports, diversification of the structure of production, reduction in the over-dependence on imports, and reduction in the overdependence on petroleum exports. The main SAP measures were: deregulation of the exchange rate trade liberalization deregulation of the financial sector adoption of appropriate pricing policies especially for petroleum products rationalization and privatisation of public sector enterprises and abolition of commodity Marketing Boards. However, as a result of trade liberalization gospel of the SAP, the Nigerian external sector has really grown in leaps and bound. For instance, the total domestic exports of Nigeria in 2006 amounted to à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦7555141.32 million as against à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦6621303.64 million in 2005 showing an increase of 14.10%. Domestic exports recorded negative growth rates in 1993(7.70%), 1994(45.5%), 1997(2.03%), 1998(38.48%), and 2001(27.06%). The largest increase in domestic exports was witnessed in 1995(448.42%). Total imports (c.i.f) stood at à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦2922248.46 as against à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦1779601.57 million in 2005 recording an increase of 64.20%. Total imports also recorded negative growth rates in 1994(45.72%), 1998(9.41%) and 2004(18.07%). The value of total merchandise trade amounted to à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦10477389.78 million in 2006 as against à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦45272.24 recorded in 1987. External trade was dominated by domestic exports between 1987 and 2006 averaging 67.17% while impo rts (c.i.f) averaged 32.82% (see figure 3 below). Consequently, the trade balance was positive between 1987 and 2006. Oil exports remains the dominant component of export trade in Nigeria between 1987 and 2006 accounting for about 93.33% of total domestic exports. On the other hand, non-oil exports accounted for a small value of 6.67% over the same period. (NBS report, 2008). Figure Therefore, it could be understood that SAP involved the deregulation and liberalization of the Nigerian economy. This policy thrust dovetailed nicely with the emerging international orthodoxy to the effect that deregulation and economic liberalization would yield the optimal allocation of scarce resources, reduce waste, and promote rapid economic growth in developing countries. Unfortunately, there has been no significant progress made in the achievement of these objectives. The economy is still excessively dependent on petroleum exports while the degree of openness of the economy has increased. The trade openness of the economy has significantly increased in the past three decades, with the trade-GDP ratio rising from 31.54% in 1970, to 46.91% in 1980, 57.23% in 1990, 88.16% in 1995, 85.26% in 2003 and 57.63% in 2007(see figure 4 below). Indeed, in the 1990s the ratio of trade to GDP has averaged 70%. This extreme openness of the economy could be disadvantageous in that it makes the country highly susceptible to internationally transmitted business cycles, and, in particular, internationally transmitted shocks (like commodity price collapse). A good example of this effect on the Nigerian economy is that of the global food crisis of 2007 and current global economic/financial crisis. Figure Statement of Research Problem Nwafor Manson (undated) noted that the Nigerias trade policy over the years has been determined by one/more of the following: Need to protect and stimulate domestic production (import capital goods at low prices etc) Need to ameliorate /prevent balance of payment problems Need to boost the value of the Naira Need to be competitive and enjoy the benefits of openness Need to increase revenue and International agreements. Today, as part of moving with the trend of globalization and trade liberalisation in the global economic system, Nigeria is a member of and a signatory to many international and regional trade agreements such as International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organisation (WTO), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and so many others. The policy response of such economic partnership on trade has been to remove trade barriers, reduce tariffs, and embark on outward-oriented trade policies. Despite all her effort to meet up with the demands of these economic partnerships in terms of opening up her border, according to the 2007 assessment of the Trade Policy Review, Nigerias trade freedom was rated 56% making her the worlds 131st freest economy while the countrys GDP was rank 161st in the world in February, 2009. The economy has struggled vigorously to stimulate growth through openness to trade. In fact, it seems that as the country put greater effort to boost her economic growth by opening up to trade with the global economy, the more she becomes worse-off relative to her trading partners in terms of country output growth. Having reviewed the related literatures and considering the structure of the Nigerian economy as related to trade openness and output growth, we may then ask the following questions: Does trade openness have any significant impact on output growth in Nigeria? Is there any other macroeconomic variable that has significant impact on output growth in Nigeria? Is there any linear association (correlation) between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria? Is there long run relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria? Has there been any significant structural change in output growth between the pre-SAP and post-SAP period in Nigeria? Objective of the Study The broad objective of this research work is to study, in its entirety, the relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. This broad objective can be subdivided into the following smaller objectives: To examine the impact of trade openness on output growth in Nigeria. To identify other internal and external macroeconomic shocks that determine output growth in Nigeria. To determine the linear association (correlation) between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. To ascertain the possibility of long run relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. To determine the possibility of structural changes (if any) in output growth between the pre-SAP and post-SAP period. Statement of Research Hypothesis In view of the foregoing study, with respect to trade openness and output growth in Nigeria, the following null hypotheses will be tested: Ho: Trade openness does not have any significant impact on output growth in Nigeria. Ho: There is no other macroeconomic variable (internal and external) that have significant impact on output growth in Nigeria. Ho: There is no linear association (correlation) between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. Ho: There is no long run relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. Ho: There is no significant structural change in output growth between the pre-SAP and post-SAP period. Justification of the Study Nigeria is currently undergoing a series of transformation in every sector of the economy, including the external sector of the economy. The countrys economic policy in the last two decades had one dominating theme which is an integral part of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) trade liberalization. This policy was espoused on the argument that it enhances the welfare of consumers and reduces poverty as it offers wider platform for choice from among wider variety of quality goods and cheaper imports. Today, there are many existing literature on the topical issue of trade openness and growth of which some support the axiom that openness is directly correlated to greater economic growth with the main operational implication being that governments should dismantle the barriers to trade. The focal point of this research work is to identify the short comings and benefits of this argument as well as check the validity of this mainstream axiom in Nigeria in the presence of various i nternal and external shocks. Significance of the Study The role of international trade in the developmental journey of an economy can not be overemphasized, especially with the current trend of globalization. Nigeria, being part of the global village, is not left out of this world development. This research work is carried out to study how trade openness has influenced the performance of the Nigerian economy through output growth in the presence of other internal and external shocks. The findings of this research work transcend beyond mere academic brainstorming, but will be of immense benefit to federal agencies, policy makers, intellectual researchers and international trade think tanks that occasionally prescribe and suggest policy options to the government on trade related issues. It will also help the government to see the effectiveness of trade liberalization policy on the economic growth of the nation over the years. This research work will further serve as a guide and provide insight for future research on this topic and related field for students who are willing to improve on it. It will also educate the public on various government policies as related to trade issues. Scope and Limitation of the Study This research work span through the period of 1970-2007 (38 years), and is within the geographical zone of Nigeria. Thus, it is a country-specific research. This research exercise, like every other research work, is really a rigorous one that consumes much time and energy especially in the area of data sourcing, data computation and modeling. The work is relatively limited base on time and financial constraints, data availability, precision of data and data range, and methodology adopted which could further be verified by future research. Nevertheless, the researchers have properly organized the research so as to present dependable results which can aid effective policy making and implementation at least for the time being. Chapter Summary and Prospect In this chapter, we have introduced the concept of openness and output growth, the problems this study seeks to address, the targeted objective of the study and the hypotheses this study seeks to verify. We have also explained the justification for and the significance of this study as well as the scope and limitations of this study. In the next chapter, we shall review the related literature, both theoretical and empirical, as well as limitations of the previous studies. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Openness refers to the degree of dependence of an economy on international trade and financial flows. Trade openness measures the international competitiveness of a country in the global market. Thus, we may talk of trade openness and financial openness. Trade openness is often measured by the ratio of import to GDP or alternatively, the ratio of trade to GDP. It is now generally accepted that increased openness with respect to both trade and capital flows will be beneficial to a country. Increased openness facilitates greater integration into global markets. Integration and globalisation are beneficial to developing countries although there are also some potential risks. (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002). Trade openness is interpreted to include import and export taxes, as well as explicit non-tariff distortions of trade or in varying degrees of broadness to cover such matters as exchange-rate policies, domestic taxes and subsidies, competition and other regulatory policies, education polic ies, the nature of the legal system, the form of government, and the general nature of institutions and culture (Baldwin, 2002). 2.2 Theoretical Literature The issue of whether trade and increased openness would lead to higher rate of economic growth is an age-old question which has sustained debate between pro-traders and protectionists over the years from classicalists like Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, to John Maynard Keynes, Raul Prebisch, Hans Singer, Paul Krugman and so on. Theorists from both theses have influenced policy in many countries and at various stage of development. There has also been a huge policy debate about what constitute good and bad policies for these countries, especially the developing countries including Nigeria. Should these countries completely open up to international trade? Or should they instead, at least temporarily, protect some or all of their industries from the world market forces? Formal arguments have been developed pro and con of both theses. These arguments were discussed extensively by Maskus (1998) thus: Argument One: Economies will grow faster if they protect domestic industry from import competition. This is a general statement of the Infant-Industry Hypothesis, which states that manufacturing sectors in underdeveloped economies must be sheltered from competition in order to have the incentive to invest capital, learn how to produce goods efficiently, take advantage of scale economies through large-scale production, and develop innovative or distinctive products that can be sold on world markets. The broadest application of the infant-industry argument for isolation from global markets emerged in the widespread use of import substitution policies in developing countries. A policy of import substitution for industrialization purposes (ISI) involves extensively controlling virtually all components of the economy in order to direct resources into manufacturing. It is an old idea, but its modern origins come from economists writing in the 1950s and 1960s (Arthur Lewis, Raul Prebish, Hans Singer, Gunnar Myrdal, others), who claimed that developing economies faced two fundamental probl ems. First, their status as primary-commodity exporters left them vulnerable to world swings in commodity prices (e.g., oil, sugar, tin, copper, etc.) and also that over the long run, commodity prices would decline relative to manufacturing prices and costs of new technologies. Second, because developing countries have high population growth rates and abundant labor supplies, it would be difficult to absorb workers into primary production. Rather than waiting for comparative advantage to push resources into labor-intensive manufacturing, it would be better to force industrialization through ISI policies. Such programs became common in the 1950s throughout Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, South Asia and Southeast Asia. They are still much in evidence in many countries. Policies imposed in a thorough ISI program include the following. Escalating tariffs, or tariff rates that rise with the stage of processing. Thus, low tariffs on primary goods, medium tariffs on industrial inputs and machinery, and high tariffs on final goods, particularly consumer goods such as food products, clothing, cosmetics, automobiles, and so on. Such tariff structures establish very high effective rates of protection for final goods, meaning that auto factories and so on were strongly protected. Considerable taxes on production of primary commodities in order to push labor out of the countryside and into the cities for developing manufacturing. Such taxes include tariffs on imported fertilizers, price ceilings at very low rates for crops, export taxes on farm goods, and so on. For these reasons, ERPs in agriculture were often strongly negative, vastly reducing output and productivity in farming. Fixing exchange rates at expensive levels (i.e., overvaluing the domestic currency), again in order to discourage primary exports and production and also to reduce the cost of imported inputs for manufacturing sectors. Such exchange rates tended to generate large trade deficits, forcing governments to borrow from abroad and build up debt. It also required setting and controlling multiple exchange rates, so that capital and input transactions could take place at cheaper rates than goods imports in order to protect domestic industry. Extensive systems of quotas and licensing for imports and production. Rigorous controls on FDI coming into the country, requiring foreign firms to meet certain performance requirements. Also controls on imported technologies, with governments placing restrictions on costs of technology and under what terms it would be transferred to local firms. Extensive nationalization of industry to establish state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in key sectors, such as petroleum, steel, chemicals, construction, banking, and airlines. These industry champions received government subsidies and were favored in the process of capital allocation, typically being allowed to borrow at very low rates from state banks (usually at negative real interest rates). To some degree these policies successfully pushed industrialization, but rarely of an efficient kind. Developing countries are full of large manufacturing operations that operate at inefficiently low scales because market sizes are small and product quality is not good enough to penetrate export markets, which is a costly activity. These operations are partly supported by government subsidies, generating vested interests in keeping them going and opposing liberalization. Relative prices of goods are heavily distorted by the various subsidies, trade restrictions, and licenses. Other unintended effects include massive shifts of workers into the cities and worsened sanitation and health problems. However, the question is whether such policies have limited growth. Evidently many other factors are at work. What seems clear is that such countries have not performed well in terms of acquiring and improving technologies, have lagged significantly behind in product innovation and adaptation, have inefficient and distorted agricultural and manufacturing sectors, and have not performed well in building human capital, physical capital, and infrastructure. Some relevant figures are given later. Thus, these sources of growth have likely been limited in countries pursuing ISI programs. Argument Two: Countries will grow faster if they are open to international competition This is the basic hope underlying trade-reform programs that involve extensive liberalization of trade and investment barriers, reduction of controls on technology transfers, unification of tariff rates and domestic tax rates, removal of consumption and production subsidies, and deregulation of industry and privatization of state-owned enterprises. It is the essential philosophy behind World Bank loans to facilitate restructuring and IMF lending packages that require microeconomic structural reforms. It is also a very old idea (going back to Adam Smith and David Ricardo at least) but its modern translation into trade liberalization largely began with the reforms in Chile in the 1970s advocated by the Chicago School of economists (e.g. Milton Friedman, George Stigler). A somewhat different version of this approach is (to contrast it with ISI) called export promotion, which is the policy followed largely by East Asian and Western countries. These approaches are not necessarily liberal in the sense of free competition. There are many examples of sheltered and subsidized domestic firms or industrial groupings; much of this protection was designed to encourage infant industries to mature and export. However, the key component of export promotion programs is not to discourage exports, as is done under ISI programs. The basic policies under export promotion include the following. Properly valued exchange rates, meaning exchange rates that do not discriminate between imports and exports. This is accomplished either through flexible rates or pegged exchange rates that are allowed to move gradually to account for inflation differences between the country in question and major export markets. In this sense, the exchange rate did not impose any tax on exports. Remove taxes on export production and, indeed, make the tax and tariff system as neutral as possible across sectors of production. Thus, while in most of these nations agricultural production was protected from import competition, in manufacturing there was relatively little discrimination across types of goods. It is for this reason that export-promotion policies are far closer to open trade policies than are ISI policies. There were certainly major exceptions to this rule in many export-promotion countries, however. Rather than rely largely on import protection to promote infant industries, some active forms of export promotion in manufacturing and high-tech sectors were taken, including favorable allocation of loans and subsidies and rebates of import tariffs paid on imported industrial inputs. Recognizing that exporting is harder than cutting off imports because exports require improving levels of quality and considerable foreign marketing costs, East Asian firms have emphasized quality control and access to foreign technologies on favorable terms. Governments have supported this by ensuring strong public educational efforts, investments in infrastructure for exports, and technology transfer policies that attempted to force inward technology flows at cheap prices. Recent problems in some countries (especially Asian countries) indicate that while export-promotion strategies may have contributed to growth, they ultimately cause serious problems of overproduction (excess capacity) relative to the economys ability to consume commodities. (Maskus, 1998) The World Bank favors lifting the protectionist measures that have locked low-income countries out of rich-country export markets. In fact, most international bodies (WTO, IMF, World Bank etc) strongly support the case for trade openness and financial liberalisation when setting up programs for developing countries or when multilateral meetings occur. Some of the arguments put forward in favour of increased openness to trade include the following: Specialization: Gains from specialisation in the good in which the country has a comparative advantage such as productivity gains, lowe